Piaget saw moral judgment broken into two age brackets: below and above age ten. Those under age ten tended to judge wrong-doings by the amount of damage caused rather than the intention behind the act. Hence, even though the person in answer A had the best intentions, he broke more dishes and, therefore, is seen as more wrong. Since the person stealing only knocked over one cup, it is not viewed as bad as breaking five dishes.

Kohlberg's stages have three levels (pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional) and six stages: 1. obedience and punishment orientation 2. individualism and exchange 3. good interpersonal relationships 4. maintaining the social order 5. social contract and individual rights 6. universal principles.

Teens require more sleep than the average adult due to their rapid growth. A teen's decreased sleep patterns do not generally stem from defiant behavior. Teens have biorhythm changes, making them more likely to stay up late and sleep later. They are inundated with academic and social demands which may impair the amount or quality of their sleep.

Perry believed college students go through 4 stages of mental and moral development: Dualism, Multiplicity, Relativism, and Commitment. Dualistic thinking occurs in Dualism when students believe every problem is solvable and they are to learn the right answers. Relativistic thinking is the belief that every issue must be evaluated because everything is contextual.

Vygotsky believed the potential for cognitive development depended upon the ZPD, which was a level of development attained when children engage in social interactions. When the social interaction is guided by an adult or collaborated with peers, the ZPD exceeds what one could achieve individually. Kohlberg is known for his work with moral development; Piaget is known for his theory of cognitive development in children; and Erickson for his eight stages of psychosocial development.

Freud described the Oedipus Complex as a stage when a boy develops feelings of desire for his mother and has feelings of anger and jealousy toward his father. The Electra Complex is when a girl develops feelings of desire for her father and has feelings of anger and jealousy toward her mother.

In Kohlberg's third level, individuals do come to realize they are separate from their society, but this occurs in the 5^th stage.  Principled thought comes after moving through the 6^th stage, which Kohlberg believed few people actually reached.

Cross-cultural counseling recognizes culture as fundamental and central to all counseling relationships and interactions. In using this approach, clients will feel valued and the rapport between counselors and clients will strengthen.

True - While some behaviors are innate, like the "rooting" of an infant to bring his mouth close to whatever it's near in hopes of eating, or an infant's startle reflex, when his arms outstretch with loud noises, most behaviors are learned within a cultural context. For instance, the handshake is generally a gesture from the Western culture. A man should never extend his hand to a woman of another culture unless she extends a hand first. Another example is that "back-slapping" someone from Asia is considered aggressive. Signaling someone from an Asian culture to follow you or directing them with your index finger, a common gesture in America, is considered rude in these cultures. Same behavior, different cultures, which means they are learned.

Personal identity becomes more clearly defined within a cultural context. Furthermore, behaviors are measured more accurately, consequences of problems are more obvious and counseling interviews are more meaningful when held within a cultural context. When a counselor counsels within a cultural context, the clients will be able to relate to what the counselor is saying and will be able to view themselves and self-reflect.

Typically, members of each socioeconomic group share similar ideas, behaviors, and values which fits the definition of culture.

Albert Bandura demonstrated this with his famous Bobo Doll Experiments. Children in the group who saw the adult treat the doll aggressively were much more aggressive in their own treatment of the doll. Behaviorists would believe aggression is learned through conditioning. Psychodynamic followers would explain aggression as an instinct - Thanatos. The humanistic explanation is that aggression is caused by unmet needs.

The pre-conscious mind contains elements from both the unconscious and the conscious minds. The unconscious mind contains hidden or forgotten memories and the conscious mind contains what is happening in the present.

According to Freud, the id is present at birth and is part of the unconscious. It is impulsive, not rational, and moves towards pleasure and away from pain. The superego is made up of the conscience and ideal self and incorporates society's values and norms.  The ego uses a rational process to solve problems and meet the id's demands while satisfying the superego.

The superego sets ideal standards and guilt results when we violate them.

A variable ratio schedule is when a reward occurs after an unpredictable amount of responses and typically provides a high rate of response.  The counselor's rate is unpredictable from one job to the next.  A fixed ratio schedule occurs when a response is reinforced after a set number of responses.  Fixed interval schedules reinforce the response only after a certain amount of time has passed.  Variable interval schedules reinforce the response after an unpredictable amount of time has gone by.

In psychoanalysis, repression is when upsetting memories are kept out of the conscious mind. Throughout therapy, using free association, psychoanalysts try to help uncover repressed memories and feelings. Suppression is when a person knowingly tries not to think or feel a certain way.

Graham Wallace described the four stages of insight: preparation, incubation, flash of illumination, and verification. The term 'Aha! Moment' is also used to describe insights when things suddenly become clearer.

The eclectic approach can be quite successful. Most counselors using this approach still adhere to one or two main counseling theories, but draw techniques from many different theories. A counselor using a holistic approach would consider the person as a whole (body, mind, emotions, spirit) rather than the separate parts when meeting with a client.

In 1905, Joseph Pratt, a medical doctor from Boston, gathered a group of patients with tuberculosis in order to educate them. The rest are all group theorists of later years. Rogers is often referred to as the “father of counseling psychology.”  Yalom developed a list of therapeutic factors in group therapy.  Bion was a British psychoanalyst.

Interpersonal learning, not intrapersonal learning, is a curative factor. Interpersonal learning occurs when a person tries out new behaviors in group. Group is seen as a microcosm of the real world.

Jerry is experiencing universality, when a member feels relief that they are not alone and that others share similar problems. He is not adapting another member's coping strategy, so it is not imitative behavior.  Instillation of hope creates a feeling of optimism, which is not mentioned.

Charles Cooley first described social groups. Primary social groups share close, personal, and enduring relationships. Secondary groups are larger than primary groups and relationships are goal oriented, impersonal, and may be temporary. Tertiary groups are sometimes called reference groups and are any group which shapes one's attitude and behavior.

Risky shift phenomenon is part of social psychology and a form of group polarization. This is related to deindividuation which occurs when a person in a group loses some of their self-identity leading to a loss of restraint and self-awareness. Bystander apathy is another term from social psychology and occurs when individuals assume that, since there are other people around, someone else has already taken action to help.

Tucker and Jensen described 5 stages of group development. In the forming stage, the group is coming together and rules are being established. Group members are typically polite to each other. During the storming stage, challenges often arise. Groups members may butt heads and test boundaries. In the norming stage, group members have developed a sense of unity and worked out their conflicts. They are also supportive of leadership. During the performing stage, the group is making progress toward their goals. Leaders are helping group members advance their skills and competencies. The adjourning stage is sometimes referred to as 'mourning' when a group is high functioning and has developed a strong sense of unity. The inevitable end can seem bittersweet.

Super talked about the life roles of: child, student, homemaker, leisurite, citizen and worker.

Holland matched individual traits with environment traits.

Those who score high in the realistic category enjoy working with machines. They are doers. Those who have high scores for investigative are thinkers, conventional are organizers, and social are helpers.  

Roe's theory consists of 8 fields (Service, Business Contact, Organization, Technology, Outdoor, Science, General Culture, and Arts & Entertainment) and 6 levels (professional and managerial, levels 1 and 2; semiprofessional and small business, level 3; skilled, level 4; semiskilled, level 5; and unskilled, level 6).  Holland created the Holland Codes: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC).  Super's theory of career development includes the concept of self-concept and 5 stages of career development: Growth, Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance, and Decline.

Dual career families are likely to have access to healthcare and money, however, because both adults in the household are working, they have less time for leisure. Instead of relaxing on evenings and weekends, they are often doing things to keep the household running, like chores or running errands.

While this may not lead to an individual changing their career, developmental theorists believe an individual's career choice is ongoing. It is a lifelong process where individuals search, evaluate, and process information about themselves and the world around them to figure out where they fit.

During childhood, individuals are in the fantasy stage. Through play and imagination, they experience many different careers. Once an individual reaches adolescence, he or she enters the tentative stage. This stage has four sub-stages: interest, capacity, values, and transition. The realistic stage begins around age 17 and lasts through the early 20s. In this stage, the individual will engage in exploration, crystallization, and specification of a specific career. Later, Ginzberg changed his outlook and said that career choice is a life-long process and does not end in the early 20s. Instead, people optimize.

The Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) is published by the U.S. Department of Labor and contains statistics and information for hundreds of different jobs. NBCC stands for the National Board for Certified Counselors; ACA is the American Counseling Association; ASCA is the American School Counselor Association.

Non-malfeasance" is refraining from providing ineffective treatments or acting with malice towards a patient. "Anti-consumerism" is incorrect because is not a therapeutic or ethical term. "Beneficence" is incorrect because it means that you take actions to benefit others. "Exploitation" is incorrect because it is a therapist's misuse of power to influence and exploit clients for their own benefit and to the clients' detriment.

The ACA Code of Ethics outlines that testimonials from clients, former clients or any other person vulnerable to undue influence is prohibited.

According to the ACA Code of Ethics, when acting in a counselor context, counselors may only use their highest degree earned in counseling, and should not imply doctorate-level competence unless their doctorate degree is in a clinical or related field.

If a test has not been normed to a certain population it is unethical to administer it to a person from that population and the client's results will not be accurate. Normed tests compare and rank the test takers in relation to one another.

The most recent revision helped align the DSM with the ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases). The DSM-5 provides researchers, clinicians, and health officials with a standard language to use when communicating about mental disorders. The ICD-11 is used by medical professionals to diagnose medical conditions. Most IEPs do contain a formal diagnosis, but the diagnosis is used to help guide what accommodations and modifications go into the IEP to help the student.

Tests that measure criterion based on a patient's report are called self-report tests. The BDI does not measure aptitude, intelligence or achievement.

Self-report tests by their very nature make accuracy difficult. They can be useful tools to assess current symptoms, however, and can be administered multiple times to gauge changes (i.e. after several months in therapy or a certain amount of time on a new medication).

The WISC-III is an intelligence test, while the rest are subjective.

Ipsative measures are sometimes referred to as 'forced choice' scale. When given two choices, the respondent needs to pick the one that's most preferred.

Typical performance shows how someone will perform on a regular basis. Maximum performance shows how someone will perform when exerting as much effort as possible (such as when a person is being observed).

Reliability is a key part of any assessment. The scale needs to provide consistent results over repeated measurements. If a test measures what it says it measures, the test has validity. Reliability and validity are independent of each other...a test can be both reliable and valid; reliable, but not valid; or not reliable, but valid.

Most researchers use a P value of .05 as a cutoff for significance. If it is less than .05, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded significance does not exist.

An operational definition is a detailed, clear, and concise definition of a measure used when data is being collected. If more than one researcher is setting out to measure the same conditions, they should be able to independently do so. In the case of measuring anxiety in college seniors, a researcher chooses to give the participants a 15 item questionnaire. The researcher's operational definition of anxiety for this study is the participant's score on the questionnaire.

Aristotle discussed the use of a major premise, a related minor premise and an obvious conclusion as a part of deductive reasoning.

Knowledge can be gained about a particular relationship by following downward from general to specific. For instance: In general, people with depression are sad. Sally is sad. Sally has depression.

Intervening variables are variables that may alter the outcome of a research experiment. They are difficult to control for. Other examples include motivation and boredom.

There are three basic types of descriptive research: survey, observation, and case study. Conclusions from descriptive research cannot be drawn, thus, no causal relationships can be determined. The survey requires 50-57% to be returned in order to be accurate.